Preface

The third of a series intended to introduce classical Chinese poetry，50 Classical Chinese Yuan Qu with Chinese-English Interpretations follows 100 Classical Chinese Poems with Chinese-English Interpretations and 50 Classical Chinese Ci with Chinese-English Interpretations，which，for their detailed annotations and insightful interpretations，have been accepted as success stories by their readers，especially by foreign tourists or Chinese language learners，thus helping China and its culture become better understood by the world，a task compatible with China’s furthered opening policy and the world’s being increasingly dependent on exchange and cooperation between cultures and nations．This book will be about Chinese classical Yuan qu，to fully meet our ambition to cover all the three Chinese poetry forms：shi，ci，and qu.

As a consequence of an invasion into Central China and based on slaughter and plunder，the Yuan Dynasty represented the submission and rule of the major nationalities by a minor one，the Mongolian tribes，which had previously been practicing slavery，a rule that had to result in a cultural downturn and be a cultural transition in itself，with a history of only about a century（1206-1368）．A good word for that dynasty is，however，it ended the 300-year chaos where China was broken into petty rivalry states，and started a new China with broadened territories，regained unification，and a larger number of nationalities．Naturally，these were conditions favorable for the various cultures to be exchanged，to remedy and to be remedied by one another，an essential part of that greater process in which the multitudinous tribes，races and nationalities fused into the one Chinese nation.

Yuan saw the division of four classes：Mongolian，Semuren，Han，and Nan，a hierarchy that had to engender unprecedented class and national conflicts，of which intellectuals were the most miserable victims．Their misfortune originated in the abolishment of the Imperial Examination，which had formerly provided them access to official posts．Socially placed next to beggars and resenting political and cultural discrimination，they switched over to the common people，withdrawing into mountains to produce their scholarly works，or wandering over rivers and lakes enjoying their company with thieves and bandits，or plunging into the innermost lanes to befriend women singers and performers，a change that would soon be felt in their literary creation．No longer heartbroken by their blocked social ascent，they broke spiritual fetters，cast new thinking patterns，and developed new personalities．Compared with their predecessors，men of letters in Yuan displayed greater bravery in defending justice and were more outspoken in their criticism of people in power．Stunning social changes，inherent cultural tradition，and the easily available popular influence—it is these that explain the vast difference in value，aesthetic standpoint，and artistic style in the Yuan literature，where the popular qu occurs so prevailingly that it must have obscured the other two forms of poetry to become the one dominant literary genre for the time.

To accompany their triumphant raids，the conquerors brought along their music，which，for its vigorous melody indicative of the hardihood of nomads，was in sharp contrast with its Central China counterpart，which，spiritually temperate and feeble，suited the previously dominating Tang shi and Song ci．Such music，although alien at the time，found it fit to the sentiments of the native Chinese who had had so much of the physical hardship and political turmoil as to want to speak up in loud shouts and resent their euphemistic traditional music and decorous shi and ci，which were now far from sufficing expression of their mind．They soon found a new means in the alien music from Hu（i.e．Far Northwest），a music featuring strong beats and straightforward expression．And they formulated，shortly afterwards，new schemes for incorporating verse to the music to make up Yuan Songs．In the passage of centuries，while the music part of these songs got lost in historical void，the verse part was left behind，known as Yuan qu，the predominating form of verse in the Yuan Dynasty.

Regionally there are two types of qu，South and North，the former originating in the Southern Song Dynasty to become prevalent in Jiangsu and Zhejiang，the latter in the Jin and Yuan dynasties to grow increasingly popular from North to South alongside the Mongolian conquest．It again divides itself into sanqu（i.e．verse for songs each of which is independent）and juqu（i.e．verse for songs to comprise an opera）．Sanqu is a type of poetry but the other an element of the opera．Sanqu is subdivided into xiaoling，taoqu，and daiguoqu，meaning，respectively，verse 1）to a single tune，2）to one of a series of tunes as a tune suite，and 3）to a transitional tune within a number of tunes.

With regard to the number of writers and quantity of works，Yuan qu can never be a match of Tang shi and Song ci，the golden peaks of Chinese poetry．Statistics show that there are about 200 authentic qu composers，accounting for 3，800 pieces of xiaoling，400 taoqu，and 160 juqu，which look rather bleak as compared to the tens of thousands pieces of Tang shi and Song ci，but are sort of consoling considering that this is a crop reaped within a mere century.

Yuan qu and Song ci have a lot in common：they both originate in folk literature，are both the verse component of music，both to be read as poetry and played as song．The difference is that，belonging to the rank-and-file，Yuan qu is sharp-，lucid- or cynical-toned，composed in oral speech of the day，full of folk sayings，smells a marketplace odor，and indicates a broadened individualism; it contrasts so sharply to the old-time works that it seems to have soon found it in popular favor.

As verse for the song，qu was given two identifying tags：name of the melody to which musical sounds were arranged and name of the tune to which the verse was composed．In ancient China，gong，shang，jue，bianzhi（or qingjue），zhi，yu，and biangong were names of the seven musical sounds．When gong was to be the principal sound in the arrangement，the melody fell into the category gong，whereas any of the other six sounds was to be principal，the melody would alike be tagged diao．Since gong-diao thus represented form and capacity of the melody，as it varied，it gave expression to moods running all the way from foaming indignation to militant grandeur，from sentimental affection to dark melancholy．Alas，long lost was such music，so that modern learners will have to abide a book devoid of the faintest clue as to what those dismal or magnificent melodies are like.

As is the case of Song ci，the tune dictates number of words in the verse and form of the line．They are different in that ci is often composed of 2，3 or even 4 stanzas，like the modern song that comprises several stanzas to be sung repeatedly，whereas a piece of qu is a single（mono-）verse．This feature of qu suits its narrative form，but is unfit for the words to be voiced repeatedly．Also，while ci is rhymed every two or few lines，qu has to be rhymed at the end of virtually each line．Again，while the ci tune restricts line form and the number of words，qu is flexible as to be allowed to have its line form and number of words somewhat varied，as deemed necessary by the composer．Such liberty benefits qu creation and makes for easier understanding for the audience，to aid qu’s popular influence.

Joining shi and ci，qu combines with them to constitute a homogeneous system of Chinese poetry．Critics in the ensuing ages have branded them，in that order，as majestic，courtly，and vulgar，meaning that shi，elegant，solemn，and elevated in style，suits expression of aspirations，ideals，and profound feelings，ci，with its comparatively easy text and a style that is brisk and entertaining，gives expression to sentimental emotions，whereas qu，popularly favored and playfully，ironically，or indignantly worded，is a ready means for social satire and depiction of mentality of the rank-and-file．Upon completion of these three forms，Chinese poetry sort of came to a standstill，to shift aimlessly from one to another，now and again．And this happened，say critics，only after qu had exhibited the afterglow.

Even after qu had taken root，literary people were still regarding it with disdain，calling it vulgar melodies，unworthy of a place as art，and the well positioned，while continuing their love for shi and ci，never considered the composition of qu worth their while．As Yuan approached its social stability，things were even worse：qu recorded declined production and its influence seemed to be spending itself．However，it is owing to its scanty quantity that it has been evaluated as a historical rarity，the sole means of expression for the time，and its most important literary achievement．“As did shi in Tang and ci in Song，qu in Yuan represents an age，to be succeeded by no counterpart in any other，”comments Wang Guowei，an eminent scholar in the Qing Dynasty，in his Preface to A survey of Opera Verse in Song and Yuan.

Thus inspired，we selected 50 pieces from among several thousand，had them annotated，translated，and interpreted，and provided each with a short biographical introduction．Should this book have been given its merits，we largely owe them to Xu Yuanchong，a professor of distinction from Peking University，who allowed us to use his English versions of these verses，and to Zhong Liangming，a veteran professor of Beijing Jiaotong University，who agreed to render into English the rest of the book that required to be translated.

May this little book be one more fruitful effort towards increased exchange between cultures and promoted learning of the Chinese language and literary classics.

The Authors and Translators