Chapter One Introduction to
Hua’er Folk Songs

The genre of Chinese folk songs known as Hua’er （in both singular and plural forms） first came into being in the regions along the Silk Road, and has come to be hailed as “the soul of Northwest China”. The traditionally unaccompanied songs belong both to the fields of folk music and to folk literature. As is the case with most oral folk literature, Hua’er have no specific composers or poets, having been passed down from generation to generation. Most works of Hua’er were composed by peasants in the countryside, singing spontaneously of their daily life and customs, and of their thoughts and emotions, constituting a gradual crystallization of the general wisdom of the common people. Although most peasant-singers in the past did not have the opportunity to receive a formal education, the words, or poems, of their Hua’er, while seemingly distinct from the composition of classical Chinese poetry, not only contain a literary appeal and artistic charm unique to folk literature, but are rich in metaphorical technique. Although at one period in their history Hua’er were underrated as “low and vulgar”, and as songs containing “lewd slang”, they have survived these difficult times, and, while continuing to be loved and sung in the northwest of China where they were first created, have come to be highly appraised both within China as a whole and abroad. In 2006, Hua’er were approved by China’s State Council to be included in the National List of Intangible Cultural Heritage,  and in 2009, the genre was placed on UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage list.

Hua’er regained the attention of scholars when Peking University initiated a collection of folk songs from all over the country. Their first appearance was in a journal by the name of Geyao Zhoukan （Folk Song Weekly）, （Vol. 82 （15, 3, 1925））, when thirty Hua’er songs collected by Yuan Fuli, as well as an article entitled Songs of Gansu —“Words” [an alternative name for Hua’er]. As Liu Kai pointed out, “...popular in Qinghai and Gansu provinces, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region and Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Hua’er were then known to the nation for the first time.”1 Moreover, Liu Kai disclosed the story of the collection of Hua’er by Yuan Fuli, as follows:

Yuan Fuli returned to China from Columbia University in 1921, after which time he became a geologist. He travelled across Gansu Province with an assistant and three camels, in order to try to discover new sources of fuel for the region. As he entered Tongguan, the gate to the Northwest, he was immediately attracted by the resonant and beautiful songs he heard sung by the local itinerant traders, for he had always been interested in the folk songs of different regions.2

Motivated by his enthusiasm for Hua’er, Yuan Fuli set about collecting these songs, which mirrored the local folk customs through the local dialects in which they were sung.

The first research work on Hua’er was the Hua’er Ji （An Anthology of Hua’er） by Zhang Yaxiong, published in 1940 in Chongqing. In the postscript to the second edition in 1986, Zhang Yaxiong stated that he had started collecting Hua’er folk songs, publishing the poems as well as research papers on them, as early as 1928. After ten years spent on collecting and research, he selected 600 from 3000 songs to include in his book. However, the preservation of the two editions proved to be precarious amidst the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution （1966—1976）. Most fortunately, however, one Hua’er lover still had a copy of the first edition. According to the compiler, Yang Hui, there was quite a story behind this particular copy of the book. It was bought by a young soldier, Ma Erli, who shared his interest in Hua’er with a writer and Hua’er lover in the same troop, named Dai Liren. With the death of Ma Erli, the book was left in the hands of Dai, who then treasured it for years. To protect the book from being destroyed during the Cultural Revolution, he buried it in a jar underground. In 1980, he returned the book to the author himself, despite many twists and turns during the second National Conference of the Representatives of Literary and Art Workers in Gansu Province. It is noteworthy that, as his name would imply, the young soldier Ma Erli might have been a person of the Hui ethnic group. It is the custom for every person of Hui nationality to have two given names, a Han name and an Arabic name, and his given name Erli is clearly of Arabic origin.

The 1986 edition was characterized by the inclusion of the earliest Hua’er songs, which were of great historical value. Furthermore, the ideas presented by the author exerted a significant influence on the research which followed. In addition, the selection represented two major genres of Hua’er — the “Hezhou Type”and the “Taomin Type”. The Hua’er songs collected fully reflected the status of Hua’er in the 1920s and 1930s in Northwest China. As Zhang Yaxiong pointed out, “The prominent type of Hua’er in the three regions of Gansu, Ningxia and Qinghai was the Hezhou Hua’er, which pervaded the northwest region, from the northernmost Gansu Province to the southernmost Qinghai Province.”3

Since the 1950s and 1960s, papers and critiques on Hua’er have been published in newspapers and magazines. Essays on Shaonian （Hua’er）, （1982） is one example. The compiler selected more than 140 articles from 1950 to 1981, including a short news report, the words （poems） of new Hua’er, introductions to Hua’er song festivals in different places, reflections on Hua’er and some research papers. For instance, in his Tantan Hua’er （A Few Words on Hua’er）, Zhu Zhonglu4 categorized Hua’er into four types—Hua’er songs about love, grievance, satire and eulogy. Other scholars have explored the origin （Zhao Cunlu, Sun Shuqing）, techniques of expression （Sun Shuqing）, metre （Liu Kai） and its comparison with other Chinese verse （Liu Kai）, to mention but a few. These research articles represented the beginnings of Hua’er research after 1949. However, beset by the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution, this activity and research was brought to a standstill. Hua’er gradually regained attention after the Cultural Revolution and were approved as the focus for the key National Art Research Program in 1985. Soon followed the collecting of Hua’er folk songs nationwide, bringing with it a strong drive for the propagation of Hua’er. A number of Hua’er were included in An Anthology of Chinese Folk Songs, which was proceeded by many other works, from Hua’er of Northwest China by Xi Huimin, published in 1984, to Hezhou Hua’er by Guo Zhengqing, published in 2007.

Books published in China were echoed by overseas publications, such as the dissertation Imagining the Chinese Tradition: the Case of Hua’er Songs, Festivals, and Scholarship, by Sue Mary Clare Tuohy in 1988, Shaonian: Love Ballads from Northwest China—Singers, Words and Music, co-authored by Du Yaxiong and an associate professor in New Zealand in 2000, and Research on Hua’er— Orally Transmitted Folk Songs from the Silk Road by the author, Wu Yulin, published in 2005 by Shinzansha, Japan. Other scholars in the US, Germany and Japan have shown great interest in Hua’er and investigated the folklore of Gansu and other areas. In Japan, the first expert to introduce Hua’er folk songs to the Japanese people was the famous oral literature expert Mikiko Shimura. Other Japanese scholars are Hirota Ritsuko of Kanagawa University, Tatsuhiko Sakurai of Nagoya University, and Tanino Noriyuki of Hokkaido University, 5 to name but a few. In the West too, many scholars have shown interest in Hua’er, such as Kathryn Lowry, Rulan Chao Pian, Antoinet Schimmelpenninck, her husband Frank Kouwenhoven, and Arienne M. Dwyer. These researchers have visited famous Chinese scholars or places where Hua’er have long been popular, in order to complete their theses or publish related articles. This love of Hua’er has been shared even with some internationally distinguished musicians and ethnomusicologists, such as Yang Mu, who has also published several articles on Hua’er.

With their characteristics of originality and simplicity, Hua’er folk songs and the large-scale Hua’er Gatherings, or festival events, have thus been attracting folklorists, anthropologists, musicians and scholars of many fields from both China and abroad, to study and propagate this cultural folk heritage.

The Birth of Hua’er

It is extremely difficult to determine an exact date for the first appearance of Hua’er, as historical documents have left no definite evidence. However, we can find some clues in a poem of the Qing Dynasty （1616—1911） written by Wu Zhen, entitled Sweet Memories of Lintao. Wu Zhen, who went by the name of Xin Chen, was born in Gansu. He succeeded in the imperial examination in 1768 and was subsequently appointed magistrate of Yuanzhou in Hunan. When he was transferred to work in another place, he composed ten poems in memory of his hometown, Lintao. In the ninth poem, there is a mention of the singing of Hua’er, of which he was very fond. This indicates that Hua’er existed at least as early as the Qing Dynasty. However, the fact should not be overlooked that some scholars date the birth of Hua’er back to a far earlier period.

The Zhou Dynasty Hypothesis （1046 BC—256 BC）

Zhao Cunlu, in his Re-tapping the Origin and Development of Hua’er （1962） wrote, “It is said that the first time the term hua was used in folk songs dates back to The Book of Songs, the earliest collection of Chinese poetry, which was also called by many people The Book of Pa （葩）. Given the fact that ba is an alternative, literary term for hua （花，flower）, then The Book of Songs was undoubtedly also known as The Book of Flowers. If this can be said to be true, we can ascertain that the birth time of Hua’er was the Zhou Dynasty, dating back to 3000 years ago.”6 Although this hypothesis is mere supposition, we can certainly find similarities between Hua’er and The Book of Songs in content and use of imagery, particularly in terms of the rhetorical devices of Bi （comparison） and Xing （a linguistic technique for arousing emotion in the listener or reader）.

Zhao Cunlu’s hypothesis was opposed by Huang Rong’en7 who argued that it did not have a firm grounding. Ke Yang8 also maintained that “Folk songs are a genre of oral folk literature and art. Be they ancient or contemporary, of one place or another, of this culture or another, they share some similarities in content, techniques of expression and artistic style, which is self-evident.... It might be improper to conclude in haste that Hua’er originated from the ancient folk songs simply because they are similar, without further exploring the broader background.” Bi and Xing will be the main focus of discussion in Chapter Three.

The Tang Dynasty Hypothesis （618—907）

Zhang Yaxiong in his The Whole Story of the First Collection of Hua’er, hypothesized that Hua’er might have originated in the Tang Dynasty. Zhao Cunlu too acknowledges the possibility of this idea. Zhang suggests that Emperor Li Longji （Xuanzong） of the Tang Dynasty encouraged the collecting of the folk songs and dances of Xiliang （present-day Liangzhou in Gansu Province, where Hua’er are still sung today）, situated along the Silk Road. In response, the military governors stationed in the area paid tribute to the emperor by presenting him with songs from both Liangzhou and Yizhou （also situated along the Silk Road）, the tunes of which were popular all over the northwest. These songs consisted of only four lines, which could be said to be in the same style as many Hua’er songs （Zhang, 1982: 210）9. Zhao Cunlu’s hypothesis is based on the example of the following Hua’er.

1

Monk Xuanzang went on the Journey to the West,

White Dragon Horse carried Buddhist scriptures;

Monkey King left shaonian to later generations,

In order to relieve labourers’ toil and sorrows.

（Debates on Hua’er, p. 174）

This Hua’er contains references to the early novel Xi You Ji, or Journey to the West. The shaonian in the third line is an alternative name for hua’er, suggesting the early origin of Hua’er folk songs. This opinion, however, was opposed by other scholars, mainly because detailed research had not been conducted into the already lost Yizhou and Liangzhou songs10. Sun Shuqing argued that the mention of the legend of the Monkey King could not justify the conjecture that Hua’er originated in the Tang Dynasty, since Journey to the West itself was not completed until the much later Ming Dynasty （1368—1644）. This argument was supported by Ke Yang.

The Song Dynasty Hypothesis （960—1279）

Sun Shuqing maintained that Hua’er were related to xiaoling （a type of sanqu, nondramatic song） of the Yuan Dynasty （1206—1368）. In his words, “The so-called ‘foreign’ songs of the Song Dynasty can be identified as those popular in Gansu and Qinghai.... The White Peony ling tune was similar to the Green Peony ling in Romance of the Western Chamber [a literary work with narration and song, composed by a member of the literati in the Jin Dynasty （1115—1234） named Dong]. This means that Hua’er songs popular in Qinghai and Gansu were transmitted to the inland regions before the Yuan Dynasty. Influenced by this type of song, folk artists and men of letters helped it to spread in the form of xiaoling, which were further developed into daling [a combination of different tunes, in the form of a suite].”11

However, Ke Yang challenged this idea, saying, “While this hypothesis is somewhat acceptable, it is not entirely convincing, due to a lack of supportive materials.”12 Zhou Mengshi analyzed the use of ling tunes in his On the System of Hua’er, in which he wrote, “The use of the terms of the different ling tunes is relatively recent. More precisely, most were not employed until the 1940s, as is demonstrated in Zhang Yaxiong’s work An Anthology of Hua’er. There is no mention of ling in the thirteen Hua’er tunes he lists. The so-called Hezhou daling became popular only after 1949, and only amongst scholars, being unfamiliar to the common people.”13 It would seem, therefore, that Sun’s hypothesis was not so far firmly grounded.

The Ming Dynasty Hypothesis （1368—1644）

The Ming Dynasty hypothesis for speculating the period of the birth of Hua’er has been advocated by most researchers, based on two main arguments. First, the poet Gao Hong of the Ming Dynasty made mention of Hua’er in his poem Gushan Xingyin （Chanting While Travelling in Gushan）, written during a time when he held a post in Hezhou （now Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture in Gansu Province）. This poem is believed to be the earliest record of Hua’er so far. Secondly, some names of places, such as Xining and Nianbo （located in the present-day Qinghai Province where Hua’er have enjoyed great popularity） and the administrative division “Thirteen Provinces” （referring to the whole country）, were used particularly in the Ming Dynasty. Examples of the mention of these place names can be seen in the following two Hua’er.

2

Often do I come and go in the city of Xining,

The roads in the district of Nianbo are winding,

My love is out of my sight but in my mind,

I always look forward to seeing her on that road.

（Essays on Shaonian, p. 409）

3

Thousands of miles I have travelled,

And the Yellow River I have crossed,

Yet the Yangtze River outshines all others;

I have been to the Thirteen Provinces of China,

And have seen many beautiful young women,

Yet none can compare with you for virtue.

（Essays on Shaonasn, p. 522）

Further evidence presented in favour of the Ming hypothesis is that Hua’er often borrowed materials from classical novels such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West, All Men Are Brothers, and The Generals of the Yang Family, all of which were familiar to people of the Ming Dynasty. Included in Hua’er were figures from these popu-lar stories, proving that Hua’er must have dated from shortly after the appearance of the novels. As has also been pointed out by A Xiaoping, “[Reference to the] Dream of the Red Chamber [another classic, popular in the subsequent Qing Dynasty] has never appeared in Hua’er songs. This illustrates that operas and novels after the early Qing Dynasty have not served as the central subject matter or introductory lines of Hua’er. In turn, this proves that Hua’er prospered in the early Ming Dynasty, rather than the Qing Dynasty.”14

The Hui People in the Yuan Dynasty（1206—1368） and Hua’er

Based on the fact that it is the Hui people who sing and have helped spread the popularity of Hua’er, it is important to consider the area which they inhabited in the northwest part of China in the Yuan Dynasty. This presents an important clue for determining the date of origin of Hua’er.

During the course of Chinese history, the Hui people have become a hybrid of different ethnic groups. Bai Shouyi writes in his book The History of the Chinese Hui People, “We should first note the relationship between Arabs and Persians and the Hui people. A large number of Arabs and Persians, followers of Islam, came to China from the mid-7th century to the end of the 13th century, the period which spanned the Tang and Song dynasties, travelling the path of the Silk Road. Some of them settled there and married local Chinese, whose descendents became the Hui people.” However, they were not called Hui during the Tang and Song dynasties, as they were still small in number. In the early 13th century, the name “Hui Hui” （meaning Hui, though in a reiterative form） first appeared to refer to this group of Muslims who arrived with the westward movement of Mongolian troops and inflow of many Muslim soldiers, craftsmen and civilians. Before this time Dashi （Tazi, a Persian word） was used to refer to Arabs. In other words, the name Hui Hui appeared in the Yuan Dynasty, when a great number of records of the Hui people included in the historical documents. The History of the Yuan Dynasty referred to the name Hui Hui over 100 times more than it was mentioned in the later History of the Ming Dynasty and Draft History of the Qing Dynasty, proving the prominence of the Hui people during the Yuan Dynasty. A Biography of the Western Region （contained in History of the Ming Dynasty） reports that, “In the Yuan Dynasty the Hui people resided all over the country, particularly in Gansu Province [which then included the present-day Qinghai and Ningxia regions, where Hua’er songs have always been sung].” This is thus an important factor in attempting to estimate the origin and development of Hua’er.

The growth and development of a nationality, or ethnic group, is directly related to its political status. At the time, the Hui people ranked only second to the Mongolians, the ruling class in the Yuan Dynasty. The Huis were considered to be related to the Semu people, a general term used to refer to people living in Serindia, the area which covers pre- sent-day Xinjiang （Uygur Autonomous Region）. The Semu were in control of national finance, the economy and social affairs as a whole. The Semu people also enjoyed such privileges as being able to enter the official examination with lower test requirements than other ethnic groups. Bai Shouyi once said, “The Hui at the time enjoyed a rather prestigious status in terms of politics, the judicial system and social life. They could be found in such positions as top ministers, managers of governmental affairs, or Darughachi （officials or governors in the Mongolian Empire in charge of taxes and administration in a certain province）. ”15 The following song reflects the political success of a Hui man in the government.

4

My love has gone to take up office at the court,

Leaving this young woman in tears;

He wears a black gauze cap on his head,

And he turns up his nose at his poor Hui sweetheart.

（2000 Hua’er from the Liupanshan Mountain Area, p. 152）

Besides having political influence, the Hui people in the Yuan Dynasty enjoyed economic advantages by helping Mongolian people in business and property management. Tao Zongyi16 of the Yuan Dynasty recorded the grand wedding ceremony of a Hui family, conducted with extravagance and rich cultural flavour in Hangzhou. According to Tao’s account, this exotic scene attracted a rush of so many crowds that it resulted in the collapse of the building and some deaths. His descriptions of the “eight tall buildings” and “all inhabited by the wealthy Hui” imply that many rich Hui people lived in Hangzhou during the Yuan Dynasty. The Hui people of the period still maintained the marriage customs, dress, language and names of their ancestors, the Persians and Arabs.

Some Hui people joined the allied army （one of the military forces that constituted the regular Yuan army）. After the tough battles, some of them were dispersed to many different places in the northwest part of the country, to open up wasteland and grow cereal crops, and work as farmers or raisers of livestock. According to the Annals of the Military History of Yuan, these Hui people were obliged to get married and have children, in order to guarantee an increased continuation of the labour force. They formed Hui villages, and, as recruits in the allied army, fought during wartime and cultivated the land during peacetime. This soldier-farmer way of life is characteristic of the history of the Hui, and it is not difficult to imagine how harsh their living conditions were. After the long journeys they had made, these soldier-farmers had also to endure the torture of being away from their homeland. To relieve their pain and sorrow, they began to sing the songs which gradually developed into folk song genre of Hua’er. They sang of their daily life close to agriculture, while in some songs, references were made to the shields which protected soldiers’ chests and to certain battles, and in others the names of places of religious worship appeared. Moreover, their grief, fear and dissatisfaction with their way of life became a further inspiration for their compositions of Hua’er, as can be seen in the following songs:

5

I am full of cares when not singing,

Only by singing can I feel at ease;

Even though I may die tomorrow,

I will sing to my utmost content today!

（2000 Hua’er from the Liupanshan Mountain Area, p. 1）

6

On my back I carry sand and soil,

And even bear stones, large and small;

Hardship and pain though I endure,

Humming Hua’er is still my joy.

（2000 Hua’er from the Liupanshan Mountain Area, p. 1）

In short, the birth and spread of Hua’er can be said to be related to the large number of Muslims who came to China in the Yuan Dynasty and the massive opening up of wasteland in the northwest region of China where the Hui people came to settle, gradually forming an ethnic group.

The Mongols, the Mongolian Language and the Hezhou Dialect in the Yuan Dynasty

Although predominantly sung by the Hui, Hua’er are also sung by the Han, Dongxiang, Bao’an and other ethnic groups. The language used, however, tends to be the Hezhou dialect. （The name Hezhou was used officially until 1928 to refer to what became the present-day Linxia in Gansu Province. It should not be confused with the present-day Hezhou in Guangxi Province. ） Zhang Yaxiong commented on the characteristics of the Hezhou dialect, describing it as “a language with inverted sentences.”17 In a general grammatical sense, inversion is employed for rhetorical effect to emphasize the tone, intonation or syllables. However, in the Hezhou dialect, inversion is a linguistic convention. It sometimes puzzles listeners when the object is placed before the predicate verb. Zhang Yaxiong once cited Run Pu, explaining, “This inversion not only occurs in the Hezhou dialect, but also in the dialects of people living along the border region with Tibet, where the Han people and Tibetans were in close contact. Traders at the time of the Yuan Dynasty associated particularly closely with the Tibetans and were gradually influenced by their language.”18 This form of Chinese influenced by the Tibetan language further spread with the traders as they moved about the northwestern part of China on their travels. Hence, the particular syntactic structures used in Hua’er songs gradually came to be formed.

Hezhou was a place of strategic importance situated along the Silk Road. It became a distribution centre for agricultural and animal husbandry products, enjoying prosperous economic and trade contacts. Although, as suggested above, some researchers believe that the Tibetan language influenced the Hezhou dialect, there would appear to be some further influences. Since a number of ethnic groups inhabited the Hezhou area, their different dialects may well have had a considerable mutual impact on the common language used. Among these ethnic groups were the Mongolians, since Hezhou was a place where Mongolian troops were stationed for a long period in its history. Thus, the Mongolian language might also have exerted a certain influence on the vernacular.

The various ethnic groups who originally resided in the central part of Asia were led by the Mongolian troops to the central part of China, where they enjoyed close cooperative relations in terms of the military affairs, politics and the economy of the Mongolian ruling class. Furthermore, they gradually came to be related to the Mongols from the point of view of language, customs and habits, and cultural traditions. Lu Jin pointed out in his A Re-exploration of Hua’er Language Structure, “Although the Mongols never lived in Linxia （Yuan Dynasty Hezhou）, according to certain linguists, the Dongxiang people living in Linxia county speak a language which is derived from the Mongolian language of the 13th and 14th centuries. The Dongxiang language also contains the characteristic of inversion, which was influenced by the Linxia （Hezhou） and Tibetan languages. As a result, the words of Hua’er songs sometimes contain uncommon sentence patterns.”19 Zhang Yaxiong argued that “The Dongxiang people speak a vernacular with its own particular grammar derived from the Turkic family of languages.”20 Some researchers have further argued in favour of a relationship between Turkic and the Mongolian language.

Thus, the Hezhou dialect of Chinese which greatly influenced the language of Hua’er, can in itself be seen to have been influenced by a combination of the Han, Hui, Mongolian and Tibetan languages. Moreover, the further influence of Arabic and Persian, gives to the language of Hua’er a unique vividness and colourful means of expression.

Language and Hua’er in the Song and Yuan Dynasties

Some of the words of Hua’er appear similar to those spoken in the Song and Yuan dynasties. This might be a further clue for determining the period when Hua’er first came into being. As Long Qian’an says, “The Jurchen and Mongolian languages were widespread during the Song and Yuan dynasties. They were characterized by their complexity and uniqueness.”21 Another type of verse popular in the Yuan Dynasty, yuanqu, had also been influenced by the Mongolian language. For instance, in a certain zaju （poetic drama）, the Mongolian word abu meaning “to run”was used. This word, and other such expressions originating in the Yuan Dynasty, can also be seen in the words of Hua’er, as in the examples below.

7

The moon ascends as big as a wheel,

The sun rises as big as a bowl.

I do not fear any sword or hatchet,

I only dread my beloved abandoning me.

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 183）

8

After breakfast, you watered the yaman’s horses,

Back home, you hitched the horse to a post.

If you take off your soiled white vest,

I will wash and starch it for you.

Come and fetch your vest after supper,

And I might ask you to stay for the night.

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 178）

In both these songs [See p. 239 & p. 240], the heroines call themselves nu （奴）, which is explained in the Dictionary of Language in the Song and Yuan Dynasties22 as “an expression used by a woman to refer to herself”. There are a number of similar expressions in the early Hua’er songs. The yaman mentioned in the above song was a government official body in ancient China.

9

The big foal went to Ningxia,

The little foal stayed in the field;

My beloved is no longer in sight,

Leaving me with sleepless nights.

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 181）

10

At the foot of the wall the white peony blooms,

Its leaves are like those of the lotus;

I miss you to death in the daytime,

And dream of you night after night.

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 171）

The wanxi （晚夕）, meaning “dark night”, mentioned in the last lines of the two above songs [See p. 240] is also a word included in the Dictionary of Language in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. It is worth mentioning that, in addition, this word appeared in Yuanchao Mishi （The Secret History of the Yuan Dynasty）, which recorded the history of the Mongolian people.

11

The halo around the moon forecasts wind,

The halo around the sun foretells rain.

If my husband knew, he would blame me,

If my parents-in-law heard, they would scold me.

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 182）

We can surmise that the woman in this song has had an affair with another man outside marriage. She is afraid that their affair will be discovered by her husband’s parents. The ritou （日头） in the second line [See p. 240], meaning the sun, is frequently used in Hua’er. It is a typical Hezhou word, also included in the Dictionary of Language in the Song and Yuan Dynasties.

12

On the square table stands a vase of flowers,

It will flourish with water,

Yet wither without;

My beloved is a shield to protect my heart,

With her I flourish,

Yet perish without.

（Selected Hua’er of Northwest China, p. 136）

In this Hua’er, the woman is compared to a huxinjing （护心镜）, or shield, the protective part of the military uniform for horse riders and archers, as explained in the Dictionary of Language in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. The metaphor demonstrates that the singer might have experienced fierce and dangerous battles. He compares his beloved to a shield in order to describe the comfort she gives.

13

With my black donkey carrying wine, I came,

Pretending to look up at the wine shop sign.

I fell for you with all my heart,

But acted in such a careless way.

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 180）

The wangzi （望子） in the second line [See p. 241] is a colloquial expression for jiuwangzi （酒望子, a wine shop sign）, or buwangzi （布望子, a shop sign made of cloth）. In the Dictionary of Language in the Song and Yuan Dynasties, it is explained as “a wine shop sign which appeals to potential drinkers”.

14

With a pair of dzos you are ploughing,

Five mu of land have already been done;

Broad shoulders and ruddy cheeks you have,

And with so kind a heart,

Can I be a match for you?

（Hua’er of Northwest China, p. 109）

A dzo is a hybrid of yak and domestic cattle, and technically refers to a male hybrid. Mu, a Chinese unit of area, is roughly equal to 1/3 hectare. The Dictionary of Language in the Song and Yuan Dynasties explains the word shenduan （身段） in the last line [See p. 241], which is a common expression nowadays, as referring to “stature or posture”. This indicates that the expression at least appeared during the Song and Yuan dynasties.

15

I made the collar of your red cotton vest,

And pulled the thread through the button;

I accepted your wooing in sincerity,

While you fooled me with your deceit.

（Qinghai as Mirrored in Hua’er, p. 473）

The zhu’ao （主袄） in the first line [See p. 242] is a short Chinesestyle sleeveless coat or jacket, sometimes cotton-padded, similar to a waistcoat. In another older Hua’er, we find a similar expression zhuyao （主腰）. The change from zhuyao to zhu’ao indicates a change in the name of the garment, as recorded in Hua’er songs. When the author was conducting research, The term zhuyaozi （主腰子）, zi being a nominal suffix, is still used in the Dungan language, the language of the Dungan ethnic group who inhabit the country of Kyrgyzstan, located to the West of China, meaning a lined vest worn inside a suit. The Dungan are descendents of the Hui people of Northwest China. Although now living far away from the Northwest China region, they have retained the dialect spoken more than 130 years ago. This is evidence that the word zhuyao is an ancient northwest expression.

16

The broken bridge built with rotten wood,

You crossed safe and sound,

Yet is it still safe for me?

You abandoned me this time,

But though I forgive you,

Do you, I wonder, still love me?

（Hua’er of Northwest China, p. 137）

The term shan （闪） in the fourth line [See p. 242] is explained as “to abandon, wrench away, or avoid” in the Dictionary of Language in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. Here it means “to abandon, desert or cast aside”, quite different from the present meaning of “to avoid or dodge”. The shan in the first line, however, is used together with the term shanduan, which, based on the context of the song, means a “broken （bridge）”.

17

I cut firewood with sickle in hand,

Oh, a baby son is all I desire!

Having a daughter would just be a trouble.

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 127）

The taoqi （淘气） in the third line of this Hua’er [See p. 243] means “naughty” in modern Chinese, but “to get angry” in the Hezhou dialect. The Dictionary of Language in the Song and Yuan Dictionaries explains it as “a trouble”, which is what the woman means in the song. In the past, sons were considered preferable to daughters, particularly in the countryside. This song expresses the woman’s desire to have a baby boy, for fear that she should be looked down upon by other people if she were to give birth to a girl. This Hua’er reflects the patriarchal attitudes common among people in the northwest villages of China.

18

Those words we uttered with intimacy,

Whether alive or dead, together we would stay;

For only a chance to speak to you again,

I would stand by you yet,

Even if my head were to be severed from my neck!

（Hua’er of Northwest China, p. 156）

According to Vernacular and Colloquial Expressions in Yuan, Ming and Qing Literature23, the expression yida（li）（一搭（里）） in the second and fifth lines of the original song [See p. 243] contains different meanings, such as “a place”, “a patch”, “a piece of”, and “to be together”. Here, it means “to be together”.

19

The wool grows thick on the sheep,

When can it be twisted into yarn?

So distressed I was when you went away,

When can I possibly see you again?

（Hua’er of Northwest China, p. 144）

20

Seeing off my beloved,

My heart wept like a beeswax candle;

Without him I am as a tiger away from the forest,

And the dragon away from the Yangtze River.

（Hua’er of Northwest China, p. 145）

The appellations age （阿哥）, er’age （二阿哥）, xiao’age （小阿哥）, all meaning a “young man”, frequently appear in Hua’er songs, just as in the two above examples [See p. 243 & p. 244]. In the Dictionary of Language in the Song and Yuan Dynasties, it is defined as a “respectful form of address for a young man”. The term age, which is included in this Hua’er, can also be found in the third chapter of the late Song Dynasty classical Chinese novel, Shui Hu Zhuan （All Men Are Brothers, also known as The Water Margin）.

21

The first herd of mules went away,

The second herd of mules followed;

You are going ever far away,

Leaving me missing you every day.

（Hua’er of Northwest China, p. 146）

22

The halo around the moon forecasts a forthcoming wind,

The halo around the sun foretells a possible rain;

Your beloved is going but will come back,

Why do you block his way with tears?

（Hua’er of Northwest China, p. 145）

In modern Chinese usage, the men （们） which appears in the two above Hua’er [See p. 244], is an auxiliary pluralizing suffix for personal pronouns and nouns. However, in Hua’er, the expression is similar to the old Chinese language usage. In other words, in the first song, men follows the common noun （“mule”） without altering the meaning. This old meaning has been maintained in the Hezhou dialect, and consequently, people living in this region have continued to use men in Hua’er according to its old sense. Like ha （哈） and zhe （者） in Hua’er, the auxiliary suffix men is used purely for rhythmic or modal purposes.

23

I would set a ladder up to the sky,

And pluck stars for you if you should ask;

Please point to the road you often take,

I would go with you even at the risk of my life.

（Hua’er of Northwest China, p. 121）

According to the Dictionary of Language in the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the li （哩） which appears at the end of the second and fourth lines of this song [See p. 245] is “a modal auxiliary particle denoting affirmation”. It is frequently used in Hua’er, and constitutes one of its important linguistic features.

As can be seen from the examples above, many words commonly used in the Song and Yuan dynasties frequently appear in Hua’er, adding to them a historical and cultural value. Some words which appeared in earlier Hua’er, such as the jiuwangzi （wine shop sign）, nu （I, me, used by a woman referring to herself）, and zhuyao （a vest） in some of the above examples, have, however, disappeared with the passage of time and the development of Hua’er. Nevertheless, still other expressions have survived and continued to be used in Hua’er, such as age （young man）, wanxi （dusk）, ritou （the sun）, yidali （to be together）, panchan （travelling expenses）, taoqi （a trouble）, shan （to abandon）, men （auxiliary suffix）, and li （modal particle）. It might be possible to infer that it is precisely due to the fact that such ancient expressions have continued to be used in Hua’er, that they have become deeply rooted in the Northwest Chinese dialect. On the other hand, it is possible that expressions used in the vernacular Chinese of the Song and Yuan periods were directly absorbed into what have become the northwest dialects of today, and consequently naturally appear in Hua’er. Questions still remain to be answered as to the relationship between the vernacular Chinese of the Song and Yuan periods and the northwest dialects as they exist today. Future research into Hua’er, however, may well, in turn, shed light also on the development of the Chinese language.

Xiliang and Hui Music along the Silk Road, and Their Connection with the Music of Hua’er Folk Songs

As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, at the wish of Emperor Li Longji （Xuanzong） of the Tang Dynasty, his military governors presented him with the music of the songs and dances of Yizhou and Liangzhou, along the Silk Road. Even if it is difficult to determine whether the rudiments of the music of Hua’er lie in that of Yizhou and Liangzhou, it is worthwhile considering whether there is any connection between what is known as Xiliang music and Hua’er.

According to the Japanese scholar Kishibe Shigeo, “Xiliang refers to the area of Liangzhou, which stretches from Chang’an to the Western Region.”24 According to some ancient music books, Xiliang music would appear to have been connected with the music of the Western Region, including that of the Hexi Corridor and the Huangshui River Basin, located along the Silk Road to the west of the present-day Gansu and Qinghai provinces. This area is also the region where Hua’er songs flourished, and where many people of the Hui ethnic group came to settle.

In Stories of the Past and the Origin of Hua’er and An Anthology of Hua’er, Zhang Yaxiong affirms the close relationship between Hui music and Hua’er. He explains that, though the words of Hua’er are generally borrowed from the Chinese spoken by the Han people [albeit with the influence of the Hezhou dialect], the music of Hua’er reveals Hui features, with a further influence from the musical style of the Tibetan and Mongolian ethnic groups. Hui music may indeed have had some degree of influence on Hua’er. As the Arab ancestors of the Hui people travelled on their camels and horses along the Silk Road, gradually moving in the direction of Northwest China, they composed different kinds of music. Also, in accord with their Islamic belief, they would chant the call to prayer. The chanting was characterized by its simplicity and repetitive quality. Indeed, the Hua’er songs sung in the northwest of China share some similarities with this Arabic chanting. Most important of all, Hua’er have mainly been sung by the Hui people, who also believe in Islam. It might, therefore, be said that Hua’er songs themselves are proof that Hui music in the Yuan Dynasty was derived from Arabian Music. Furthermore, the Hui people’s familiarity with the Chinese Han Language might have facilitated the birth and blossoming of Hua’er songs.

The Yuan Dynasty also produced the zaju form of poetic drama set to music, which contained romantic themes similar to those seen in Hua’er and certain scripts in which the Hui people featured as protagonists. In conclusion, it can be said that the influx of Muslims from various locations along the Silk Road into Central China during the Yuan Dynasty, the exotic music which they brought with them and the popularity of zaju, all exerted some degree of influence upon Hua’er songs.

Narrative and Song Folk Literature during the Yuan and Song Dynasties—the Sanqu （Verse） of the Yuan Dynasty and Hua’er

As mentioned earlier, some scholars believe that the Hua’er genre of folk songs was influenced by the sanqu verses of the Yuan Dynasty. However, the author’s opinion is to the contrary, for the following reasons:

Firstly, after they moved to China during the Yuan Dynasty, the Hui people gradually adapted themselves to the culture and language around them. Their non-proficiency in the local language, however, rendered it hardly possible for them adequately to use the vernacular and colloquial expressions in Hua’er songs. It is almost inconceivable, therefore, that Hua’er were influenced by the sanqu popular in the urban cities.

Secondly, Hua’er songs were created in the remote northwest regions, and restricted to the local areas. On the other hand, sanqu were composed by people living in the urban cities. Especially due to the inconvenience of roads and means of travel, Hua’er were spread orally from person to person, with very little likelihood of their reaching the capital or other big cities, and being influenced by song forms there. Thus, any contact between the styles of sanqu and Hua’er was nearly impossible.

Finally, no actual evidence has been found to show the influence upon Hua’er songs of the sanqu of the Yuan Dynasty. In their themes, sanqu mainly depicted the lives of men and women in the town; while Hua’er songs described the travelling tradesmen, craftsmen and women villagers against the backdrop of remote villages and the grassland plains. Long and short sentences were freely used in sanqu; while Hua’er songs have more definite forms in terms of the number of words, verses and structure as a whole, no matter whether they are of the Hezhou Type or the Taomin Type （See Chapter Four）.

Nevertheless, despite all of the above ideas against any possible influence of sanqu on Hua’er, when Hua’er are examined closely, a slight trace of the influence of sanqu can in fact be seen. In addition, the learning of the Chinese language, history and culture must in a sense have facilitated the absorption of sanqu features. The following songs may further prove this idea.

24

The pipa and sanxian I have no wish to pluck,

Since my heart strings are plucked by her, the multi-petaled peony;

I will be happy if she merely sits before my eyes,

Even if I am only treated to a bowl of cold water.

（Hua’er of Northwest China, p. 116）

25

Malian fibre can be stretched to make a pipa string,

Yet only a good player can pluck the pipa well,

Even just one visit to the Lotus Mountain Festival,

Can give you enough Hua’er to sing for three long years.

（Hua’er of Northwest China, p. 214）

Sanqu poetry refers to a fixed-rhythm form of classical Chinese poetry, or “literary song”. It was a notable Chinese poetic form during the Yuan Dynasty, whose tonal patterns were modeled on tunes drawn from folk songs or other music. The belief that Hua’er may in fact be related to sanqu, is connected with the musical instruments, pipa and sanxian, mentioned in the above two songs. The sanxian was a three-stringed instrument, and the four-stringed lute-like pipa was also commonly used as the accompaniment for sanqu poetry. It is supposed that pipa and sanxian players were common even in remote villages. Here, the singer in the second song is able to appreciate the skill required to play the instruments well. In addition, the “malian fibre” in the first line of the second song is used metaphorically, since a malian fibre rope is actually also stretched across the entrance line at a Hua’er Gathering, or Festival, in order to indicate that only true Hua’er singers will be permitted to participate. [The “Lotus Moutain” （Lianhua Shan） in the third line, situated in southwestern Kangle County in Gansu Province, is the location of a large-scale annual Hua’er festival, with a tradition dating back approximately 300 years. ]

In many Hua’er songs, reference to traditional Chinese classical novels is employed as an introduction, or to set the scene, for the songs. As previously mentioned, this fact has been used by some scholars in attempting to ascertain the date of origin of Hua’er as the Ming Dynasty. However, the author maintains that the narrating and chanting of folk literary works in the form of the sanqu of the Yuan Dynasty may have exerted a greater influence, for the following two main reasons.

First, the singers and the audience of Hua’er songs were mainly unschooled farmers. Their rare contact with written works made it less possible for Hua’er to be directly influenced by classical novels. What influenced them most might have been watching local outdoor opera performances, listening to songs and stories based on the novels, rather than actually reading them.

Secondly, although the classical novels themselves were compiled in the Ming Dynasty, the rudimentary themes and plots had already appeared and become popular in the form of narration, operas and scripts for storytelling as early as the Song and Yuan dynasties.

The fact that Hua’er, as oral folk poetry, were collectively composed by many singers and developed from generation to generation, makes it even more difficult to determine the original versions and the time of composition of each. The following are some examples of Hua’er songs which show their connection with folk stories and storytelling scripts.

26

Sichuan Province is famed for its chestnut horses,

Hezhou County is noted for the beauty, Diaochan;

Though my parents beat me three times a day,

I will bear it and be strong,

For your sake alone.

（Essays on Shaonian, p. 417）

Mainly bred in Sichuan Province, chestnut horses were well-noted for their beautiful appearance and wild vigour. According to legend, a white dragon turned into a chestnut horse after drinking from a miraculous spring. However, this horse was found to be too wild, and destroyed everything in its sight. Despite a high reward offered by the local government, nobody dared to try to tame the chestnut horse. Eventually, one of the fictional great beauties of ancient China, Diaochan, was said to have succeeded. In citing the famous chestnut horse and the beauty, Diaochan, the speaker is referring to the outstanding bravery and beautiful appearance of the woman he loves. The idea suggested in the latter three lines is that he is prepared to suffer the strict control and punishment imposed on him by his parents, in the hope of one day being able to be her bridegroom.

27

Emperor Taizong of Tang had a dream,

He saw a general in a white gown.

I took my beloved’s hand to ask for her heart,

She did not even turn her eyes to look at me.

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 201）

Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty dreamt of a general in a white gown who saved his life. The dream later came true. However, the singer of this song cites this historical episode to express the feelings in his heart, only to be met by the cold denial of the woman, quite contrary to Taizong’s dream.

28

Here comes March the third,

The birthday of the Queen of Heaven.

There are three hundred and sixty days in a year,

And I think of you on every one,

Not even one day do I forget you.

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 146）

The Queen of Heaven in the above song is the “mother of goddesses”in Chinese folk tales. On her birthday, all the gods and goddesses would present her with gifts. This theme is commonly seen in Hua’er, as well as in scripts for storytelling and poetic dramas. The “three hundred and sixty days” was used traditionally to refer approximately to the span of one year.

29

You sang a song about Yang Ye of the Yangs,

And I, about Zhao Zilong of The Three Kingdoms.

Two such fine men are we who woo you,

We will not desert you halfway.

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 191）

30

There are three mountain ridges leading to the main gate,

Which one do you choose to climb up?

There are eighteen versions of Hua’er historical texts,

Which one will you choose to sing?

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 80）

These two Hua’er present another common theme—that of the gen-erals of the famous Song Dynasty Yang family, who were garrisoned on the northern frontier and were known to have served the country with supreme loyalty. The heroes of the Yang family and their brave feats have been described and eulogized in many different genres of literary works. Over forty such songs are included in Zhang Yaxiong’s An Anthology of Hua’er.

31

The rapeseed flowers shine golden,

Their glow has attracted the honey bees;

The lovesickness from which you suffer,

No doctor in the thirteen provinces can cure.

（Essays on Shaonian, p. 409）

The term “thirteen provinces” （shisansheng） in the last line of the above song [See p. 247], and discussed earlier, frequently appears in Hua’er. It represents the administrative divisions of the country, and refers to the nation as a whole. The appearance of the term serves as an important clue for research into Hua’er history. The research findings have shown that this was the system of administrative division in the early Ming Dynasty, which provides useful evidence to support the idea that Hua’er originated in the Ming Dynasty. However, this idea is not necessarily entirely right, as the term may also have been used in the previous dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty.

The author believes that the division of provinces was first adopted in the Yuan Dynasty when the Mongolian people held power. What were originally ten provinces, and then eleven provinces, would seem to have been modified slightly to become thirteen provinces by the time of the Yuan Dynasty. Some Hua’er describe the conquering of the state of Liao, possibly because the Hui people had been dispatched to the frontier to participate in battles in the Yuan Dynasty. It is, therefore, reasonable to make the tentative conclusion that Hua’er were first created during the Yuan Dynasty.

32

He is gaily dressed in a red robe tied with a sash,

For passing the Xiliang civil service examination;

Not he, nor the wisest man in the world would I love,

For you are the only one I truly long for.

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 162）

According to the explanation in the Dictionary of Chinese Historical Place Names, compiled by Wei Songshan, “During the Five Dynasties （907—960） and the Western Xia （1038—1227） periods, Xiliang was seated in Wuwei, in present-day Gansu Province”. The name Xiliang continued to be used until the Western Xia and the first fifteen years of the Yuan Dynasty. The provincial civil service exam, as described in the second verse of the above song, was held every three years to select candidates for the state bureaucracy. The man in the song who has succeeded in the exam was gaily dressed in a red robe to celebrate his success. Despite his brilliance, however, the singer would rather love another man. Perhaps this reflects her concern over the possibility of his abandoning her. Nevertheless, the theme of taking up office in the government appears quite frequently in Hua’er folk songs.

Hua’er are fundamentally a genre of oral literature, and have thus been passed down from generation to generation, by word of mouth. This has naturally led to the rarity of written historical documentation to prove the correct date of their origin. Consequently, any material which exists can be helpful in the process of speculation. In presenting certain ideas and theories, the author too hopes to stimulate further discussion on the subject.

The Name Hua’er and Its Development

Chinese folk songs usually tend to acquire their names according to the ethnic group or place from which they originate, such as Shanxi folk songs （folk songs of Shanxi Province）, or the Miao folk songs of the Miao ethnic group. However, the unique and beautiful genre of folk songs which has been widely absorbed and sung by numerous ethnic groups is known overall as Hua’er. There are various theories as to how this name came about.

Zhang Yaxiong has said that Hua’er folk songs mainly express the singer’s feelings for the person he loves. As the beloved is so often compared to a flower [or described by means of a metaphorical reference to different flowers], so the name Hua’er （meaning flower） emerged. His opinion has been widely recognized by other scholars. In Encyclopaedia Sinica （1988）, Ke Yang defines Hua’er as follows: “The folk songs get their name from the fact that the young women in them are often compared to flowers [hua（’er） being the standard Chinese word for ‘flower’], hence the name Hua’er.” It is very possible, however, that the folk songs did not acquire a unified name until there was a need for one for the sake of convenience. The formation of Hua’er can be divided into four developmental periods: 1. an unspecified period; 2. a period during which the term Hua’er was written with the Chinese character话 （hua）, meaning “words”, or “story”, or “everyday speech”, and when Hua’er were influenced mainly by historical narrative; 3. a period during which the concept of “flowers” was used as a metaphorical device; and 4. a period when Hua’er mainly constituted love songs.

Hua’er as Unspecified Folk Songs

33

A bowl of mutton and a bowl of ginger,

The mutton is stewed with noodles;

Sweet girl, please sing us a song,

Your smile is more precious than jewels.

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 163）

This Hua’er depicts a typical scene inside a simple eating place in the northwest of China, where mutton and noodles has always been a typical meal. The customer might be a travelling tradesman of some kind, who loves singing and listening to music. After his meal, he invites a girl to sing a song. It is worth mentioning that here it is a “song”, or a “tune” which is asked for, rather than the name Hua’er being used. Accordingly, it is possible to surmise that the name had not yet come into being. Asking someone, even a stranger, to sing a song has long been a common custom in the region. Indeed, the fact that anyone was ready to sing a song upon request indicates the popularity of music and folk songs.

34

The sound of beating drums on the tower travels far,

A bright light hangs from the army tent;

I work in the daytime and miss you at night,

I turn to singing a song to seek comfort.

（A Collection of Chinese Folk Songs—Ningxia, p. 140）

From the description in this Hua’er, we can infer that it is much older. We can imagine how, when the dark night envelops the whole town, the singer finds it difficult to sleep, even at the end of a hard day, because he misses his beloved from whom he is far away. To relieve his longing, he starts to sing a song. Once again, the general word for a “song”, or a “tune”, is used. The specific name Hua’er is not mentioned, as it had not yet come into use.

Hua’er Meaning “Words” or “Verses”

The name Hua’er meaning “verses” was first used in 1925 by Yuan Fuli （mentioned at the beginning of this chapter） in his article Gansu Folk Songs—Hua’er. However, the name was not immediately recognized and was thought to be a mistaken usage of the term hua’er meaning “flower”, as has been similarly pointed out by Liu Kai （also mentioned earlier）. However, it is very possible that the name Hua’er meaning “verses” was used to refer to those songs related to historical narratives. Hua’er written with the Chinese character 话, meaning “words” or “narrative”, and, by extension, “verses”, may indeed have gradually come into being as a result of the influence upon them of stories and tales from history.

On careful examination of the words or verses of Hua’er folk songs of earlier periods, the influence of the narratives of storytellers and mention of historical stories and figures becomes clearly evident. On the other hand, the more recently collected Hua’er folk songs contain fewer references to such historical tales.

35

Caocao watched Zhao Zilong from the city walls,

A million soldiers could not rival the valiant warrior.

Have you seen the woman whom I am wooing?

She is as beautiful as one chosen to be empress.

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 54）

This Hua’er was composed in the 1920s or 1930s. The historical story chosen from the classical novel Annals of the Three Kingdoms depicts the heroic General Zhao Zilong in a precise and concise style. The speaker emphasizes the beauty of his beloved woman by comparing her to his image of “one chosen to be empress”. The metaphor and analogy are excellently applied to bring out the best of the theme. For those who are familiar with the characters in Annals of the Three Kingdoms, the song successfully conveys the mutual love of the couple, and renders an aesthetic pleasure to the listener. The Caocao in the first line also came to be known as Wei Wang, or the King of Wei.

The term Hua’er, when written with the Chinese character话, also refers to “everyday speech”, or “daily conversation”, in terms of the songs taking on the form of a means of communication, in place of words themselves. In other words, Hua’er folk songs first came about as a direct expression of the feelings of the singer, as can be seen in the following song.

36

The high poplar cannot shield us from the wind,

On the top is perched a yellow warbler.

If your words of love cannot touch my heart,

I, then, will turn to another one to court.

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 168）

The singer in this song is a woman who blames her beloved for being weak and not exerting himself on her behalf, just like the high poplar which cannot protect her. If he continues in this way, she fears she will have to end their relationship and find another more worthy man. Since Hua’er are very often sung in dialogue, she may be singing to the man face to face.

37

Hua’er express the words in my heart,

I cannot help but sing them;

Even if my head be struck by a sword,

As long as I live, I will sing on.

（2000 Hua’er from the Liupanshan Mountain Area, p. 1）

This Hua’er song further emphasizes the idea of the term hua’er meaning “words” or “verses”, in directly expressing the singer’s feelings. Just as the singer describes, he （or she） will continue to sing Hua’er, even at the cost of their life.

Hua’er Meaning “Flowers”

As has been suggested, the employment of metaphor and comparison with different flowers gradually increased in the composition of later Hua’er in the 1980s, in which the names of flowers frequently appear. Some of the reasons as to why flowers gradually became more popular than historical tales as a theme for Hua’er, could be said to be the following:

First, the social and cultural trends changed with the times. There were two main periods during which there was a particular upsurge in interest in, and the collection of, Hua’er. The first stage saw the aforementioned representative work An Anthology of Hua’er by Zhang Ya-xiong, of songs composed in the 1920s and 1930s, in which the songs were greatly influenced by historical tales. The second stage is marked by the publication of another representative work, An Anthology of Chinese Folk Songs, also by Zhang Yaxiong, published in a series of volumes in the 1980s and 1990s. These songs tended more to reflect life after the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. It was in these more recently composed songs that the concept of “flowers” began to appear.

Secondly, “flowers” tended to appear in Hua’er more than before due to the fact that the lifestyle and natural environment of the singers, now mostly farmers, greatly changed. When the unstable life of the travelling tradesmen was gradually replaced by a trend to settle down in the villages, the singers came to identify more closely with the plants and flowers around them.

The third reason as to why flowers began to appear more frequently in Hua’er, could be said to be the increased number of recreation and competitive activities encouraging the singing of Hua’er, which have come about in more recent times. Within Hua’er singing, there are three main modes of expression: 1. a solo to express the emotions or to relieve pain. This would generally be the case when the singer is on a solitary trip, or engaged alone in farming or animal husbandry; 2. a duet, when two people communicate their feelings by singing in the form of question and answer. This usually takes place between passers-by or sweethearts; and 3. group singing, when people gather at large social events such as Hua’er festivals. One of the rules for Hua’er singing contests is to list as many flowers and historical figures as possible at the greatest possible speed.

The following is two verses from a duet in the form of question and answer and riddle, and in which many names of flowers are mentioned.

38

A:

What flowers bloom yet look not like flowers?

What seeds can form a long chain?

What is dressed in a fine green vest?

B:

The pepper vine’s flowers look not like flowers,

The grapevine in seed can form a long chain.

A grasshopper is dressed in a fine green vest.

（Hua’er of Northwest China, p. 206）

In conclusion, the name Hua’er, meaning “flowers” began to appear naturally with an increase in the names of flowers being used as metaphorical devices in the songs. However, as historical narratives recounted by storytellers had been popular before 1919, Hua’er, meaning “words”, may possibly be the true derivation of the name Hua’er.

Hua’er Folk Songs as Songs of Love

Whether it is historical stories or flowers that are employed in Hua’er folk songs, their appearance is mainly to serve as a rhetorical device. The most common theme of Hua’er is still love, accounting for over 90% of all the themes of Hua’er. The origin of the name Hua’er implying the idea of flowers may be related to the theme of love expressed in the songs. As Hua’er have always mostly been sung in the fields during or after work, the majority of them tend to describe personal relationships, employing plants and flowers to symbolize plain and straightforward feelings of love.

39

Willow saplings are lined along the Tao River,

When will they grow to full size trees?

I count the days and wait for your arrival,

When will I hold you in my arms?

（An Anthology of Hua’er, p. 53）

The singer of this song might be a bridegroom-to-be who is looking forward to his wedding day. The willow saplings in the first two lines indicate the season of early spring, the budding season, to infer that it will still be a long time until their wedding. The Tao River mentioned in the first line flows past southern Gansu Province, and is the second largest tributary of the Yellow River.

Thus, in more recent times flowers have been increasingly employed in Hua’er as symbols of the beauty of young women, or as metaphors implying the different circumstances of love. The theme of love in Hua’er will be discussed further in the next chapter.

The Multiple Meanings Contained in the Term Hua’er

In addition to the different ideas concerning the derivation of the term hua’er as the name for this genre of folk songs, and as has been described above, the word hua’er itself does contain multiple meanings. In standard Chinese, the word hua, or hua’r （hua’er）, means a “flower”. In the world of Hua’er folk songs, the expression hua’er refers to both the name of the songs themselves and to the term hua’er which frequently appears in the words, or poems, of the songs, itself containing multiple possibilities of meaning. Sometimes in the songs, hua’er refers to a young woman, while at other times it may mean a plant or flower, or even refer to Hua’er, the name of the genre of the folk song itself. This multiple possibility of meaning contained in the term Hua’er attributes a further liveliness and vividness to the atmosphere of the songs.

Hua’er Referring to Plants and Flowers

40

No flower is more beautiful than the white peony,

No man is happier than when a young boy;

Leaving home is like a tiger descending to the plain,

And without the dragon the Yangtze will run dry.

（Ningxia Hua’er, p. 210）

41

It is hard to prop up newly blossoming flowers,

The pomegranate flower blooms and hangs down;

It is hard to approach and talk to you when we first meet,

I am afraid you are just too shy to speak to me.

（2000 Hua’er from the Liupanshan Mountain Area, p. 30）

Both of the terms hua’er contained in these two songs [See p. 250 & p. 251] refer to plants or flowers. At the same time, the “newly blossoming flowers” in the first line of the second song contains a double meaning, as it is also used metaphorically to indicate a new sweetheart.

Hua’er Referring to a Beautiful Woman

42

The girl you are courting I have not seen,

She is said to be as pretty as a peony;

The girl I am wooing you must see,

She is just like a lotus freshly in bloom.

（2000 Hua’er from the Liupanshan Mountain Area, p. 19）

43

A good singer comes from Lotus Mountain,

His voice shakes the world;

A pretty girl comes from Ningxia Plain,

Her good looks amaze the world.

（2000 Hua’er from the Liupanshan Mountain Area, p. 17）

44

It is easier to mount a horse than dismount one,

I crossed the river without exploring its depth.

It is easy to woo a girl but hard to discard her,

Even a healthy man who worries can fall sick.

（A Collection of Chinese Folk Songs—Ningxia, p. 74）

The hua’er in all of the above three songs [See p. 251 & p. 252] represent a young woman. The term hua’er can also be used together with certain verbs to vividly express the singer’s meaning, such as wei hua’er （维花儿, to woo a young woman） in the first and third songs, diu hua’er （丢花儿, to part from, or lose, a woman） in the third song, and ge hua’er （搁花儿, get along with a young woman）. These characteristic collocations are easily recognized and understood by the people of the northwest.

Hua’er Referring to the Genre of Folk Songs of the Northwest

45

I have two huge armfuls of Hua’er,

I will sing any you may ask for;

I could sing from day to night,

And still only have sung but a fingerful.

（2000 Hua’er from the Liupanshan Mountain Area, p. 1）

46

Handful after handful of sesame is thrown to the sky,

Yet just as many Hua’er do I have in my mind.

I could sing from Liupanshan Mountain to Nanhai Sea and back,

And still have plenty to sing for three more years yet.

（2000 Hua’er from the Liupanshan Mountain Area, p. 1）

The hua’er in both songs above [See p. 252] refers to the genre of the songs themselves. In the first song, hua’er is used in a combination with the verb chang （唱, the standard Chinese verb “to sing”）, whereas in the second song, it is collocated with the verb man （漫）, also with the Hezhou dialect meaning of “to sing”. While in standard Chinese, man means “to spread, or overflow”, this usage in the sense of “to sing” is peculiar to Hua’er.

47

Flowers should be planted on the sunny side of the mountain,

Red flowers are more beautiful than green leaves;

If you want to woo a girl, visit her family frequently,

Your love will then be fulfilled in marriage.

（2000 Hua’er from the Liupanshan Mountain Area, p. 6）

In this song [See p. 252], the term hua’er is used three times in all, but with two different meanings. Given the different verb collocations, in the first and second lines it can be seen to be used to refer to flowers （zai hua栽花, plant or grow flowers）, while in the third line, it is used to refer to wooing a girl （wei hua, 维花儿）.

48

Sad hua’er should not be sung,

Joyful hua’er should;

Stubborn girls should not be courted,

Honey-mouthed ones should.

（A Collection of Chinese Folk Songs—Ningxia, p. 74）

In this song [See p. 253], the word hua’er appears four times, twice in the first line and twice in the third line, conveying two different meanings. The first two hua’er refer to the name of the folk song Hua’er, while the last two metaphorically indicate a potential girlfriend. The singer suggests courting a tender and amiable girl rather than a stubborn one. As further illustrated here, the collocation of the term hua’er with other words, and its capacity for double meaning and metaphor, enhances and enlivens the atmosphere of the songs, and creates an extended dimension of depth.

The Alternative Name for Hua’er — Shaonian

The name shaonian is a regional alternative for hua’er, and is especially popular in Qinghai Province. Shaonian refers to the man singer himself, or a man in a song, in contrast to hua’er, which refers to a woman.

49

The pea plant is in bloom and the wheat has matured,

My young man has gone to gather in the crops;

The pea blossoms are blooming white,

My sweetheart is a fine young man.

（2000 Hua’er from the Liupanshan Mountain Area, p. 15）

The sweetheart of the female singer in this song is referred to as shaonian （少年）, meaning a young man [See p. 253]. It is the harvest sea-son, and he has temporarily left his own village to go to gather in crops in other villages to supplement his income, a tradition in the northwest rural areas. Such people are known as “wheat men” （maike, meaning people who help others to harvest wheat）. The job is highly demanding from the point of view of the length of time, the speed required and the hard physical labour involved. “Wheat men”sometimes have to travel a long way and rush from wheat field to wheat field. The singer is proud of her boyfriend and admires his diligence, uprightness and handsome appearance.

In Hua’er songs, a woman is euphemistically called hua’er to show her beauty; and, in contrast, a man is called shaonian in praise of his fine appearance. However, the name Shaonian as an alternative appellation for the genre of folk songs has gradually disappeared due to the spread of the recognition of Hua’er folk songs, together with the name Hua’er, both at home and abroad.

Shaonian Referring to a Young Man

As with the expression hua’er, the term shaonian also contains several meanings in the words of Hua’er.

50

The scallion is planted deep, the garlic grows shallow,

And the root of the hemp spreads above the ground;

I have searched in villages both from east to west,

And finally found a sweetheart to my heart’s content.

（2000 Hua’er from the Liupanshan Mountain Area, p. 41）

The singer in this song would appear to be a woman who is filled with joy at having found “a sweetheart to her heart’s content”. Her ingenious metaphor in the first two lines demonstrates her attitude towards the ideal partner in love. The person she has chosen is an upright and well-integrated man of fine personality. In this song [See p. 253], she refers to her sweetheart as shaonian.

Shaonian Referring to Hua’er Songs

51

How do little red sparrows grow strong and fly?

They are lovingly fed by their mother.

How can we greet the night without singing songs,

When we are tired after a hard day’s work?

（Debates on Hua’er, p. 154）

The “songs” in this Hua’er are referred to as shaonian [See p. 254]. The singer emphasizes the importance of shaonian as a source of support, encouragement and strength in times of toil and hardship.

The Two Schools of Hua’er

The differing geographical and cultural environments within which Hua’er developed, ranging from that of Ningxia to that of remote Xinjiang, have variedly influenced specific features in the songs. In general, the literary characteristics, musicality, and style of Hua’er have, therefore, been categorized in terms of the region from where the songs derive. Thus, Hua’er can be divided into two main types: that of the Hezhou Type Hua’er and the Taomin Type Hua’er.

As has previously been mentioned, Hezhou refers to the present-day Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture in Gansu Province. The alternative name for this region, the so-called “Little Mecca”, well describes the rich Hui culture and folk customs there. Consequently, Hezhou Hua’er have also come to be known by the name “Linxia Hua’er”. Beginning with the influx of the Hui people into Linxia in the early Ming Dynasty approximately 400 years ago, Linxia has become a region where the Hui people comprise the largest part of the population, together with other Muslims such as those of the Dongxiang, Bao’an and Salar ethnic groups. Although the official name Hezhou disappeared in 1928, to be replaced by Linxia, the name Hezhou has exerted a great influence on the northwest region in terms of history, culture, and language.

The following Hua’er itself clearly tells us of the origin of Hua’er.

52

Well, let me ask by singing,

From where do Hua’er derive?

Well, the name is a common term,

And do please remember,

Hezhou is their birthplace.

（Essays on Hua’er, Volume 2, p. 191）

The song below is another example of a Hua’er composed in Hezhou, and which is originally sung to a Hezhou tune.

53

I went up the hill and looked down below,

And there bloomed a peony in the plain;

Though it looked easy, it was hard to pick,

Not being able to have it is such a regret.

（Selected Hua’er of Northwest China, p. 379）

The other category of Hua’er, the Taomin Type Hua’er, refers to Hua’er songs popular in the two former regions of Taozhou and Minzhou, located in present-day Gansu. This type of Hua’er is quite different from the point of view of melody, the structure of the lines, and overall style. The two types of Hua’er will be discussed in more detail in Chapter Four.